Source Critique 5

Fishbone (Cause-and-Effect) Diagram
EMRA. (1998). Fishbone (Cause-and-Effect) Diagram. In Data Analysis Core Competencies. Retrieved from https://www.indiana.edu/~istr561/knuth/pdfs/21_Fishbone_Diagram.pdf


Ishikawa Diagram

Purpose
This article is a unit from a training manual on data analysis tools that appears to have been produced for professional development and/or classroom instruction. Each step of the process of developing an Ishikawa diagram is further broken down into sub-steps allowing readers with no prior knowledge of the technique to be able to successfully implement it in real-world scenarios.

Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths

>> Fishbone diagrams can be used effectively in a variety of industries and business sectors.

>> Generally, the process can be completed in a short timeframe (one to two hours).

>> Group participation means the team is likely to remain positive and own the results.

>> The methodology requires no special tools and little training for implementation.

>> The graphic interface makes it easy for users to observe relationships among causes and effects.

Weaknesses

>> Potential causes are not identified in any particular order.

>> Causes are not associated with additional characteristics, such as magnitude or probability.

>> Depending on requirements, the process may need to be completed several times with different, comparable groups to assure the validity of results.

Description
The Data Analysis Core Competencies training module details nine steps for developing a fishbone diagram:

1.  Select subject matter experts to contribute to development of the diagram.

2.  Define the effect for analysis.

3.  Draw the basis for the fishbone diagram on a flipchart or whiteboard. 

4.  Identify “Cause Categories” and label them along the backbone of the diagram.

5.  Identify causes that comprise each category.

6.  Add causes to the diagram.

7.  Discuss each cause and build consensus regarding potential root causes.

8.  Discuss completed diagram, interrelated processes, and potential plans of action.

9.  Follow up as necessary and distribute findings. 

Uses

This article describes the process of developing Ishikawa diagrams in a more-detailed but similar manner to other articles on the topic. The content has a slight slant toward needs analysis making it more human-centered than previously reviewed sources; however, the training module includes example diagrams that clearly demonstrate production issues and processes.  

Sources Cited
Arcaro, J. (1995). Quality in Education: An Implementation Handbook. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie.EMRA recommends cause-and-effect diagramming as a simple but effective method for identifying potential causes of outcomes or key drivers of performance indicators. This organization also promotes the cause-and-effect diagram as an analytical tool especially well-suited for performing needs analysis and for finding out what additional research is necessary before root causes can be identified. 

Comparison

Swanson, R. (1995). The Quality Improvement Handbook: Team Guide to Tools and Techniques. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie.

Witkin, R. and J. Altschuld (1995). Planning and Conducting Needs Assessments. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Most Informative

The author of these data analysis training modules is undetermined. They appear to have been published by an organization by the name of EMRA, but this acronym identifies multiple organizations. Despite the unverified author, the training modules have a professional appearance, have been widely distributed on the Internet, and have been included in several bibliographies and classroom reading lists. This module is particularly helpful for new group facilitators and contains both best practices and areas of caution for leading Ishikawa diagramming sessions. It is also the first reviewed resources to mention that multiple diagrams could be produced by different, but comparable, groups allowing decision makers to compare and contrast results.

Source Author

Source Reliability

Kenda Puchalski, kenda.puchalski@gmail.com, “Mercyhurst College, Erie PA, Advanced Analytic Techniques Course,” 6 January 2011.Medium credibility

Critique Author

Source Critique 4

Cause and Effect Diagram
Ruhm, K. (2005). Cause and Effect Diagram. Retrieved from http://www.mmm.ethz.ch/dok01/d0000538.pdf


Ishikawa Diagram

Purpose
This article is from a series of training modules on measurement science and technology topics made available by the Institute of Machine Tools and Manufacturing (IWF), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland.

Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths

>  Developing cause-and-effect diagrams is not time-consuming.

>  Cause-and-effect diagrams effectively illustrate relationships in a process.

>  Users can start with minimal data and build on the group knowledge base by going through the process of developing a cause-and-effect diagram.

Weaknesses

>  Causes cannot be weighted for evaluation.

>  Diagram is limited to describing a single effect.

>  Result is only qualitative; user must apply other unrelated techniques to derive any quantitative data needed to support decision making.

Description
Ruhm provides a very brief narrative about creating cause-and-effect diagrams:

1.  Identify the effect to be analyzed.

2.  Identify potential causes and add them to the graphical model as arrows that point to the effect.

3.  Review completed diagram to identify qualitative links and relationships. 

Uses
Ruhm recommends cause-and-effect diagrams as a graphic tool to map processes and illustrate complex relationships. He stresses that it is effective for deriving only first-level, qualitative results.


Sources Cited
This article includes no outside citations or references. Citations would improve the integrity of this document as a reference source; however, as it stands, it is a well-developed essay from a subject matter expert on the qualitative functions of cause-and-effect diagrams.

Most Informative
This article provides a technical perspective on Ishikawa diagrams that complements the descriptions found in many project management and quality control resources. It is also very frank about some of the limitations of this analytical method, including the fact that that the results are uniquely qualitative – not quantitative.   

Source Author
Karl Ruhm is a Senior Lecturer with the Institute of Machine Tools and Manufacturing (IWF), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland. He is a frequent presenter at international conferences on metrology issues and measurement science.
Comparison

This article differs from previously reviewed sources because the target audience is scientists and engineers, and the focus is very narrow, specifically describing the qualitative applications of cause-and-effect diagrams. 

Source Reliability
High credibility

Critique Author
Kenda Puchalski, kenda.puchalski@gmail.com, “Mercyhurst College, Erie PA, Advanced Analytic Techniques Course,” 20 January 2011.

Source Critique 3

Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Defense Acquisition University (DAU). (2007). Cause-and-Effect Diagram. Retrieved from https://acc.dau.mil/adl/en-US/184574/file/32043/caue%20and%20effect.pdf

Ishikawa Diagram

Purpose
This article is from a series of training and professional development materials entitled “Basic Tools for Process Improvement” prepared for U.S. Department of Defense acquisition personnel, contractors, and international partners.

Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
>  Cause-and-effect diagrams help increase group knowledge of processes and allow everyone to learn more about the factors at work and their interrelationships.
>  Team members can analyze existing problems in a structured manner and plan corrective actions.
Weaknesses
>  The group dynamic may differ significantly if the effect to be analyzed is defined as a positive (an objective) or a negative (a problem).
>  Branches with multiple sub-branches may need to be broken out into separate diagrams.
>  Cause-and-effect diagrams identify potential causes; teams may need to utilize another method, such as a Pareto Chart, to help determine which cause to focus on first.


Description
DAU describes the process for creating cause-and-effect diagrams in six steps:
1.  Collect a team of contributors and work together to identify the effect to be analyzed.
2.  Begin drawing the diagram by creating a horizontal “spine” and write the effect to the right.
3.  Identify the main causes contributing to the effect, and add these as branches off the spine.
4.  Consider the main causes and identify specific factors of each which may be directly impacting the effect.
5.  Continue to incorporate process details and organize them under each related causes.
6.  Analyze the resulting diagram for cause-and effect interactions as well as areas that will require additional study.


Uses
Cause-and-effect diagrams are used to identify the root causes of a problem in a systematic manner by incorporating group knowledge of processes. Diagrams offer an easy-to-interpret blueprint of cause-and-effect relationships and help identify potential causes of quality variations. Additionally, this method effectively detects areas where more information is needed.

Comparison
This article differed from previously reviewed sources that were developed primarily for project management requirements by including a clear focus on working with a team to construct and analyze cause-and effect diagrams. Additionally, this article included more detailed instructions for physically drawing diagrams.

Sources Cited
Brassard, M. (1988). The Memory Jogger, A Pocket Guide of Tools for Continuous Improvement, pp. 24-29. Methuen, MA: GOAL/QPC.
Ishikawa, K. (1968). Guide to Quality Control. Tokyo, Japan: Asian Productivity Organization.

Most Informative
This article provided several secondary steps and considerations for analyzing completed cause-and-effect diagrams which are helpful for determining potential root causes, action items, and intelligence gaps.  

Source Author
DAU provides a full range of certification and training for Department of Defense acquisitions personnel and partners. The organization supports a dispersed workforce with a need for online knowledge-sharing tools and users requiring learning modules at basic, intermediate, and advanced levels.

Source Reliability
Very high credibility

Critique Author
Kenda Puchalski, kenda.puchalski@gmail.com, “Mercyhurst College, Erie PA, Advanced Analytic Techniques Course,” 13 January 2011.

Source Critique 2

“Ishikawa Diagram (Cause-and-Effect or Fishbone Diagram)” from Real World Project Management
Perrin, R. (2008). Ishikawa Diagram (Cause-and-Effect or Fishbone Diagram). In Real World Project Management: Beyond Conventional Wisdom, Best Practices, and Project Methodologies (315-323). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Ishikawa Diagram

Purpose
This article is from a book written for project management professionals and those who are trying to learn and implement project management best practices in the modern workplace.  

Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths

>  Users are able to visualize a series of events and see cause-and-effect relationships.

>  The process of developing the diagram is educational.

>  Cause-and-effect diagrams spur dialogue.

>  Ishikawa diagrams can be used for a variety of problems and provide a plan of action.

Weaknesses

>  Diagram may turn out too complex if the issue is not well-defined or specific enough.

>  Diagram developers must identify enough details to make the end product useful.

Description
Perrin describes the development of an Ishikawa diagram as a five-step process:

1.  Define the issue.

2.  Identify key factors causing the issue.

3.  Identify the causes leading to each factor.

4.  Add detail as necessary to describe processes impacting the issue.

5.  Review diagram and identify intelligence gaps for further research.

Uses
Ishikawa diagrams are used to investigate processes, and the starting point is usually an evaluation of what Ishikawa referred to as “The Four Ms + E”: methods, machinery, manpower, materials, and environment. The process of developing cause-and-effect diagrams aids in the examination of how each indentified factor contributes positively or negatively to the end result.

Comparison
Perrin describes the method of developing Ishikawa diagrams in a similar manner to Six Sigma Online with a focus on project management; however, he includes references to Ishikawa's original text which increases interest and authority. 

Sources Cited
Ishikawa, K. (1968). Guide to Quality Control. Tokyo, Japan: Asian Productivity Organization.

Most Informative
Perrin illustrates the process with a simple sports-related example: the coach of a volleyball team is trying to identify why his team is keeps losing games despite a full roster of skilled athletes. The example is diagrammed step-by-step demonstrating the brainstorming process and making it easy to see the cause-and-effect relationships among various factors. 

Source Author
Author Richard Perrin, PMP, CSM, MBB, has more than 30 years of experience working for Fortune 100 and Global 10 companies with a focus on lean business process and quality practices. For the past three years, he has been a coach and trainer for Agile/Scrum processes writing and speaking on project management techniques. His blog, The Project-Ninja!, is available at http://www.project-ninja.com/.  

Source Reliability
Very high credibility

Critique Author
Kenda Puchalski, kenda.puchalski@gmail.com, “Mercyhurst College, Erie PA, Advanced Analytic Techniques Course,” 6 January 2011.